Histoire des techniques

SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering

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Poncelet studied mathematics at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris from 1807 to 1810. He joined the Army, gaining admission to the Corps of Engineers. He worked on the fortifications on the Isle of Walcheren in Holland, and in 1812 he found himself on the Russian front, engulfed in the disastrous defeat of the French at Krasnoi. Poncelet was left for dead on the field, but he was found by the Russians and taken to Saratov, where he was imprisoned for two years. He had ample opportunity there to ponder mathematical problems, a mental process from which stemmed his pioneering advances in projective geometry.

After his release he returned to this native city of Metz, where he undertook routine military engineering and teaching tasks. These left him time to pursue his mathematical studies in projective geometry. This bore fruit in a series of publications, most notably the first volume of his Traité des propriétés projectives des figures (1822, Paris), the first book to be devoted to the new discipline of projective geometry. With his election to the Académie des Sciences in 1834, Poncelet moved to Paris and devoted much of his time to developing courses in applied mechanics in the Faculty of Science, resulting in a number of books, especially the Introduction à la mécanique industrielle, physique ou expérimentale (1841, Paris: Metz). In 1848 he had attained the rank of general and was made Commandant of the Ecole Polytechnique, a post he held for two years. After his retirement in 1850 he was deeply involved in the industrial machines and tools division at both the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and the similar exhibition in Paris in 1855.

Most of Poncelet's work in applied mechanics and technology was conceived during the period 1825–40. His technological innovations were centred on hydraulic engineering, and in 1826 he invented an inward-flow turbine. At the same time he directed his attention to the vertical undershot water-wheel, with wooden blades set radially and substituted curved metal blades: he used tight-fitting masonry and floors in the wheel pits so that all the water would be swept into the spaces between the blades. In addition, he ensured that the water flowing from the blades fell clear of the wheel and did not run in tail water. This greatly improved the efficiency of the water-wheel.

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SUBJECT AREA: Steam and internal combustion engines

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Renowned more for his ideas on technical matters than his practical deeds, Beau de Rochas was a prolific thinker. Within a few years he proposed a rail tunnel beneath the English Channel, a submarine telegraph, a new kind of drive for canal boats, the use of steel for high-pressure boilers and a method of improving the adhesion of locomotive wheels travelling the Alps.

The most notable of Beau de Rochas's ideas occurred in 1862 when he was employed as Ingenieur Attaché to the Central de Chemins. With remarkable foresight, he expressed the theoretical considerations for the cycle of operations for the now widely used four-stroke cycle engine. A French patent of 1862 lapsed with a failure to pay the annuity and thus the proposals for a new motive power lapsed into obscurity. Resurrected some twenty years later, the Beau de Rochas tract figures prominently in patent litigation cases. In 1885, a German court upheld a submission by a German patent lawyer that Otto's four-stroke engine of 1876 infringed the Beau de Rochas patent. It remains a mystery why Beau de Rochas never emerged at any time to defend his claims. In France he is regarded as the inventor of the four-stroke cycle engine.

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See also: Langen, Eugen

musée [myze]

[d'art, peinture] art gallery ; (technique, scientifique) museum

• musée de cire wax museum

• Nîmes est une ville-musée Nîmes is a historical town

• pièce de musée museum piece

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nom masculin gén museum; ( d'art) art gallery GB, art museum US

- musée de cire

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[sciences, histoire naturelle] museum, [peinture] art gallery

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musée nm gén museum; ( d'art et de peinture) art gallery GB, art museum US; leur maison, c'est le musée des horreurs○ hum everything in their house is indescribably ugly; une ville musée a city of great historical and artistic importance.

musée de cire waxworks (+ v sg ou pl), wax museum; musée national national museum.

ⓘ Musée national A museum directly under the control of the ministre de la Culture, for example the Louvre or Musée d'Orsay in Paris. These museums are generally closed on Tuesdays.

[myze] nom masculin

1. [d'œuvres d'art] art gallery (UK), museum (US)

[des sciences, des techniques] museum

2. (comme adjectif; avec ou sans trait d'union)

SUBJECT AREA: Domestic appliances and interiors, Textiles

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The sewing machine is probably the most universal and the most important machine in clothing manufacture, being used both industrially and domestically. It was also the first domestic consumer durable and was the first mass-produced machine to appear in the home. The first practical sewing machine was built during 1828 and 1829 by Barthélémy Thimmonier, a working tailor of Saint-Etienne in France. He came from a modest family and had never received any training as a mechanic, so his invention is all the more remarkable. He took out a patent in 1830 in his own name and that of Ferrand, a tutor of the Saint-Etienne School of Mines who had helped him financially. It was a chain-stitch machine made largely of wood and operated by a foot pedal with a large flywheel. The needle moved up and down through the cloth, which was placed on a platform below it. A second, hooked needle under the platform made a loop in the thread, which was caught when the first needle descended again.

In 1841, Thimmonier was appointed to a senior position in a large Paris clothing factory engaged in the production of French army uniforms. He soon had eighty machines in use, but a mob of hand-sewers broke in, smashed the machines and nearly killed Thimmonier. In 1845, he had developed his machine so that it could make 200 stitches per minute and formed a partnership with Jean-Marie Magnin to build them commercially. However, the abdication of Louis Philippe on 21 February 1848 ended his hopes, even though patents were taken out in the UK and the USA in that year. The English patent was in Magnin's name, and Thimmonier died impoverished in 1857. His machine was perfected by many later inventors.

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SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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In the earliest draw looms, the pattern to be woven was selected by means of loops of string that were loosely tied round the appropriate leashes, which had to be lifted to make that pick of the pattern by raising the appropriate warp threads. In Isfahan, Persia, looms were seen in the 1970s where a boy sat in the top of the loom. Before the weaver could weave the next pick, the boy selected the appropriate loop of string, pulled out those leashes which were tied in it and lifted them up by means of a forked stick. The weaver below him held up these leashes by a pair of wooden sticks and sent the shuttle through that shed while the boy was sorting out the next loop of string with its leashes. When the pick had been completed, the first loop was dropped further down the leashes and, presumably, when the whole sequence of that pattern was finished, all the loops had be pushed up the leashes to the top of the loom again.

Models in the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers, Paris, show that in 1725 Bouchon, a worker in Lyon, dispensed with the loops of string and selected the appropriate leashes by employing a band of pierced paper pressed against a row of horizontal wires by the drawboy using a hand-bar so as to push forward those which happened to lie opposite the blank spaces. These connected with loops at the lower extremity of vertical wires linked to the leashes at the top of the loom. The vertical wires could be pulled down by a comb-like rack beside the drawboy at the side of the loom in order to pull up the appropriate leashes to make the next shed. Bouchon seems to have had only one row of needles or wires, which must have limited the width of the patterns. This is an early form of mechanical memory, used in computers much later. The apparatus was improved subsequently by Falcon and Jacquard.

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adj. ; gros et joli (ep. d'un morceau de viande, de fromage...) ; propice, favorable ; bienveillant ; apte, capable ; agréable (au goût,...): BON(Z) m. dc. (mpl. dv.) (Aillon-Jeune, Aillon-Vieux 273, Aix 017, Albanais 001, Albertville 021 VAU, Annecy 003, Arvillard 228, Balme-Sillingy 020, Bellecombe-Bauges 153, Bellevaux 136, Billième 173, Bogève 217, Chambéry 025, Chamonix, Compôte-Bauges, Conflans 087, Cordon 083, Doucy-Bauges 114, Flumet, Genève 022, Giettaz 215, Hauteville-Savoie, Houches 235, Jarrier, Larringes, Leschaux 006, Loëx 264, Lugrin, Megève 201, Messery, Montagny-Bozel 026, Montendry 219, Morzine 081, Notre-Dame-Bellecombe 214, Praz-Arly 216, Reyvroz 218, St-Jean-Arvey 224, St- Nicolas-Chapelle 125, St-Paul-Chablais 079, St-Pierre-Albigny 060, Ste-Reine 272, Samoëns 010, Saxel 002, Séez, Table 290, Thônes 004, Thonon, Trinité 267, Venthon 268, Villards-Thônes 028), bou-nh (Aussois 287, Lanslevillard 286, Macôt-Plagne 189, Peisey) || bou-nh ms., bôn mpl. (St-martin-Porte 203). - ms. dv.: BO-N (001, 003, 004, 006, 020, 025, 060, 087, 267, 268, 290), bon-n (083, 228, Gruffy), bou-n (002, 021, 081, 083, 125, 136, 165, 189, 201, 214, 215, 264, 286, Draillant, Peisey.187), bounh (203). - ms. e2v.: bn (114). - fs. et fpl. dc. BONA (001, 003, 004, 006, 017, 020, 021b, 022, 025, 028, 060c, 087, 228, 267, 271, 272, 273, Montailleur) / bono (St-Martin-Porte) / bôna (153b) / bouna (002, 010, 026b, 081, 083, 125, 136, 173, 189, 201b, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 224b, 235, 287, Boëge 035) / beuna (021a, 060b, 114, 219b, 290) / bon-na (219a, Beaufort, Marthod) / bounh-a (187) / bweuna (026a, 060, 201a) / bwona (060a, 224a), -E || bnà, bneu (153a) || bòno, -ê (203). - fs. et fpl. dcsl.: bo-n' (001), bou-n' (002). - fs. dv. beu-n' (290), BO-N' (...), bou-n' (002, 021, 083, 125, 165, 201, 287). - fpl. dv. bo-n(è)z (001), bou-nez (002,035). - E.: Serviable.

A1) adv., bon: BON (...). - E.: Bonifier (Se), Suffire.

A2) pour de bon, sérieusement, définitivement, irrémédiablement, vraiment, de façon décisive et définitive, de façon certaine: pè d(e) bon (001, 002, 028), pe de bon (214), pè d'vré <pour bon du / de bon vrai> (001), to de bon (025).

A3) de son plein gré: de son bon (002), d'son plyin grâ (001).

A4) de gré ou de force: de bon bin de mandre (002).

B1) n., les bons, les gens de bien: lô bon (001), lo bon (21).

B2) bon à rien, incapable, fainéant: bon /// bona bon à rin / à rê n. (028 / 001).

C1) v., avoir beau temps, bénéficier bon d'un temps favorable // des techniques modernes // des machines: avai bon < avoir bon> (002), avai bô tin (001).

C2) être tiré d'affaire: étre du bon < être du bon (côté)> (002), étre bon < être bon>, tnyi l'bon bè < tenir le bon bout> (001).

C3) tenir ferme: tni bon < tenir bon> (002), tnyi bon (001).

D1) expr., bon au superlatif: bou-nh kòm lo pan < bon comme le pain> (203), bon mè l'pan blyan < bon comme le pain blanc> (001).

D2) (raconter // dire bon une) bon bonne plaisanterie // histoire drôle: (an dire de na) bouna nf. (Saxel 002), (ê dire on-na) bona (001).

D3) être sans bon malice // méfiance: étre tot à la bouna < être tout à la bonne> (002), étre pâ malin p'dou sou < n'être pas méchant pour deux sous> (001).

Fra. Il est sans malice // il n'est vraiment pas méchant: é farè pâ d'mâ à rna mushe < il ne ferait pas de mal à une mouche> (001).

D4) être de bonne humeur, parler volontiers: étre de bouna < être de bonne> (002).

D5) prendre les choses du bon côté, accueillir (une remarque) bon sans se froisser // favorablement: prandre de bouna < prendre de bonne> (002), byê prêdre < bien prendre>, prêdre pâ mâ < ne pas prendre mal>, prêdre du bon bon flyan / koûté (001).

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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In 1728, Falcon used punched cards, one for each pick, to replace the roll of pierced paper that Bouchon had used for storing the pattern to be woven. The selection of the leashes was the same as the method used by Bouchon. The appropriate card was pressed against a set of horizontal needles at the side of the loom by the drawboy, who then lifted those leashes that had been selected ready for the weaver to send the shuttle across for that pick. The cards could be sewn up into an endless loop so the pattern could be repeated time after time. This apparatus could select a greater width of pattern than Bouchon's because the cards were pressed against the needles by a square block of wood known as the prism or cylinder. This meant that rows of needles could be mounted below each other, allowing for many more to be fitted into the space. Vaucanson tried to make alterations to this apparatus, but the Falcon method remained in use until 1817 at Lyon and formed the basis for the later improvements by Jacquard.

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I جَدَّةٌ

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أُمُّ الأَبِ أَو أُمُّ الأُمِّ f grand-mère

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جَدَّتي رَوَت لي قَصَّةً — Ma grand-mère m'a raconté une histoire.

II جِدَّةٌ

n f

حَداثَةٌ nouveauté f, modernité f

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جِدَّةُ الأَساليبِ — la modernité des techniques

SUBJECT AREA: Textiles

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Early drawing and spinning processes failed to give linen yarn the requisite fineness and homogeneity. In 1810 Napoleon offered a prize of a million francs for a successful flax-spinning machine as part of his policy of stimulating the French textile industries. Spurred on by this offer, Girard suggested three improvements. He was too late to win the prize, but his ideas were patented in England in 1814, although not under his own name. He proposed that the fibres should be soaked in a very hot alkaline solution both before drawing and immediately before they went to the spindles. The actual drawing was to be done by passing the dried material through combs or gills that moved alternately; gill drawing was taken up in England in 1816. His method of wet spinning was never a commercial success, but his processes were adopted in part and developed in Britain and spread to Austria, Poland and France, for his ideas were essentially good and produced a superior product. The successful power-spinning of linen thread from flax depended primarily upon the initial processes of heckling and drawing. The heckling of the bundles or stricks of flax, so as to separate the long fibres of "line" from the shorter ones of "tow", was extremely difficult to mechanize, for each strick had to be combed on both sides in turn and then in the reverse direction. It was to this problem that Girard next turned his attention, inventing a successful machine in 1832 that subsequently was improved in England. The strick was placed between two vertical sheets of combs that moved opposite to each other, depositing the tow upon a revolving cylinder covered with a brush at the bottom of the machine, while the holder from which the strick was suspended moved up and down so as to help the teeth to penetrate deeper into the flax. The tow was removed from the cylinder at the bottom of the machine and taken away to be spun like cotton. The long line fibres were removed from the top of the machine and required further processing if the yarn was to be uniform.

When N.L.Sadi Carnot's book Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu, was published in 1824, Girard made a favourable report on it.

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SUBJECT AREA: Medical technology, Photography, film and optics

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At the age of 19 Marey went to Paris to study medicine, becoming particularly interested in the problems of the circulation of the blood. In an early communication to the Académie des Sciences he described a much improved device for recording the pulse, the sphygmograph, in which the beats were recorded on a smoked plate. Most of his subsequent work was concerned with methods of recording movement: to study the movement of the horse, he used pneumatic sensors on each hoof to record traces on a smoked drum; this device became known as the Marey recording tambour. His attempts to study the wing movements of a bird in flight in the same way met with limited success since the recording system interfered with free movement. Reading in 1878 of Muybridge's work in America using sequence photography to study animal movement, Marey considered the use of photography himself. In 1882 he developed an idea first used by the astronomer Janssen: a camera in which a series of exposures could be made on a circular photographic plate. Marey's "photographic gun" was rifle shaped and could expose twelve pictures in approximately one second on a circular plate. With this device he was able to study wing movements of birds in free flight. The camera was limited in that it could record only a small number of images, and in the summer of 1882 he developed a new camera, when the French government gave him a grant to set up a physiological research station on land provided by the Parisian authorities near the Porte d'Auteuil. The new design used a fixed plate, on which a series of images were recorded through a rotating shutter. Looking rather like the results provided by a modern stroboscope flash device, the images were partially superimposed if the subject was slow moving, or separated if it was fast. His human subjects were dressed all in white and moved against a black background. An alternative was to dress the subject in black, with highly reflective strips and points along limbs and at joints, to produce a graphic record of the relationships of the parts of the body during action. A one-second-sweep timing clock was included in the scene to enable the precise interval between exposures to be assessed. The fixed-plate cameras were used with considerable success, but the number of individual records on each plate was still limited. With the appearance of Eastman's Kodak roll-film camera in France in September 1888, Marey designed a new camera to use the long rolls of paper film. He described the new apparatus to the Académie des Sciences on 8 October 1888, and three weeks later showed a band of images taken with it at the rate of 20 per second. This camera and its subsequent improvements were the first true cinematographic cameras. The arrival of Eastman's celluloid film late in 1889 made Marey's camera even more practical, and for over a decade the Physiological Research Station made hundreds of sequence studies of animals and humans in motion, at rates of up to 100 pictures per second. Marey pioneered the scientific study of movement using film cameras, introducing techniques of time-lapse, frame-by-frame and slow-motion analysis, macro-and micro-cinematography, superimposed timing clocks, studies of airflow using smoke streams, and other methods still in use in the 1990s. Appointed Professor of Natural History at the Collège de France in 1870, he headed the Institut Marey founded in 1898 to continue these studies. After Marey's death in 1904, the research continued under the direction of his associate Lucien Bull, who developed many new techniques, notably ultra-high-speed cinematography.

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See also: Demenÿ, Georges

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considération [kɔ̃sideʀasjɔ̃]

   a. consideration

• ceci mérite considération this is worth considering

• n'entrons pas dans ces considérations let's not go into this

• considérations d'ordre personnel personal reasons

► en considération

• prendre qch en considération to take sth into consideration

• en considération des services rendus for services rendered

   b. ( = observation) considérations reflections

   c. ( = respect) respect

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1) ( facteur) consideration

2) ( respect) consideration

3) ( remarque) reflection

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1. nf

1) (= examen) consideration

2) (= estime) esteem, respect

2. considérations nfpl

(= remarques) reflections

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considération nf

1 ( facteur) consideration; des considérations budgétaires/politiques/techniques budgetary/political/technical considerations; prendre qch en considération to take sth into consideration; mériter considération to merit consideration; avant toute autre considération before any other consideration; en considération de in view of; sans considération de irrespective of;

2 ( respect) consideration, respect (à l'égard de, pour for); par considération de or pour out of respect for; jouir d'une considération unanime to be respected by all;

3 ( remarque) reflection (sur on); considérations sur l'histoire reflections on history; considérations inutiles idle reflections.

[kɔ̃siderasjɔ̃] nom féminin

1. [examen] consideration, scrutiny

2. [préoccupation] consideration, factor

3. [respect] regard, esteem

veuillez agréer l'assurance de ma considération distinguée yours faithfully (UK), yours sincerely (US)

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en considération locution adverbiale

toutes les candidatures seront prises en considération all applications will be given careful consideration

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en considération de locution prépositionnelle

en considération de vos services in (full) recognition of your services

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sans considération de locution prépositionnelle

sans considération du coût regardless ou heedless of ou without considering (the) cost

sérieux, -ieuse [seʀjø, jøz]

1. adjective

   a. ( = grave, important) serious

• passons aux choses sérieuses let's move on to more serious matters

   b. ( = digne de confiance) [personne, renseignement, source] reliable ; [proposition, acheteur] serious

• « pas sérieux s'abstenir » "genuine inquiries only"

   c. ( = réfléchi) [personne, études] serious ; ( = consciencieux) [employé, élève, apprenti] conscientious ; [travail, artisan] careful

• elle est très sérieuse dans son travail she's a very conscientious worker

• ça ne fait pas très sérieux it doesn't make a very good impression

• partir skier pendant les examens, ce n'est vraiment pas sérieux ! it's not very responsible to go off skiing during the exams!

• si tu veux faire sérieux, mets un costume if you want to be taken seriously you should wear a suit

   d. ( = convenable) [jeune homme, jeune fille] responsible

   e. ( = qui ne plaisante pas) serious

• vous n'êtes pas sérieux ! you can't be serious!

• non, il était sérieux no, he was serious

• c'est sérieux, ce que vous dites ? are you serious?

   f. (intensif) [coup, ennuis] serious ; [somme, différence] considerable

• de sérieuses chances de... a good chance of...

• je n'avais aucune raison sérieuse de penser que... I had no real reason to think that...

• ils ont une sérieuse avance they have a strong lead

• ils ont un sérieux retard they're seriously behind schedule

• il devra faire de sérieux efforts pour rattraper son retard he'll have to make a real effort to catch up

2. masculine noun

   a. ( = gravité) seriousness

• garder son sérieux to keep a straight face

• j'ai perdu mon sérieux I started laughing

• prendre qch/qn au sérieux to take sth/sb seriously

• se prendre au sérieux to take o.s. seriously

   b. ( = fiabilité) [de personne] reliability ; [d'acquéreur, promesses, intentions] seriousness ; [d'employé, élève, apprenti] conscientiousness

• il fait preuve de beaucoup de sérieux dans son travail/ses études he takes his work/his studies very seriously

   c. ( = sagesse) [de jeune homme, jeune fille] trustworthiness

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- ieuse seʀjø, øz adjectif

1) gén

2) ( qui mérite considération) [affaire, menace] serious; [piste, indice] important; [annonce, proposition] genuine

3) ( digne de confiance) reliable; ( responsable) responsible

4) ( grave) serious

5) ( considérable) [effort, besoin] real; [progrès] considerable; [handicap] serious

nom masculin seriousness

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1. adj

1) (= bien réfléchi) (offre, proposition) genuine, serious

2) (= empreint de gravité) (air, ton) serious

3) (= fiable) (employé, élève) conscientious, (travail) serious, (client, maison) reliable

4) (sur le plan moral) (jeune fille, mari) responsible

5) (qui préoccupe) (maladie, situation, problème) serious

6) (non négligeable) (retard, différence, chances) considerable

2. nm

1) [ton, attitude] seriousness

2) [commerce, employé] reliability

3) [situation, problème] seriousness, gravity

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sérieux, - ieuse

A adj

1 ( réfléchi) [élève, employé] serious, serious-minded; [activité, travail] serious; [politique, réforme] serious; Michel est un élève sérieux et appliqué Michel is serious and conscientious; être sérieux dans son travail [personne] to be serious about one's work;

2 ( qui ne rit pas) [personne, air, visage] serious; dire qch d'un air très sérieux to say sth in a very serious way; c'est bien vrai, tu es sérieux? is it really true, are you serious?; soyons sérieux, cette idée est totalement idiote let's be serious, this idea is totally stupid;

3 ( qui mérite considération) [affaire, raison, menace] serious; [piste, indice] important; passer aux choses sérieuses to move on to serious matters, to get down to the nitty-gritty○;

4 ( non fait pour l'amusement) [étude, sujet, livre, conversation, débat, film] serious; [annonce, proposition] genuine; une enquête très sérieuse révèle a very serious survey reveals; avoir des lectures très sérieuses to read very serious books;

5 ( digne de confiance) [personne, maison, établissement] reliable; tu peux lui faire confiance, c'est quelqu'un de sérieux you can trust him, he's reliable; ‘pas sérieux s'abstenir’ ( dans petite annonce) ‘genuine inquiries only’, ‘no time-wasters’;

6 ( grave) [conséquences, blessure, problème, incident, crise] serious; être confronté à de sérieux ennuis to be faced with serious difficulties; il souffre de sérieux troubles de la vue he has serious problems with his eyesight; la situation est jugée très sérieuse par le gouvernement the government is treating the situation as very serious;

7 ( considérable) [effort, besoin] real, concerted; [progrès] considerable; [handicap] serious; conserver une sérieuse avance to retain a considerable lead; opérer une sérieuse restructuration des services to carry out a complete restructuring of services; prendre un sérieux retard dans son travail to fall seriously behind with one's work; avoir un sérieux besoin de vacances really to need a vacation, to be seriously in need of a vacation;

8 ( responsable) [personne] responsible; il n'est pas très sérieux ce garçon this boy is a bit irresponsible; cela ne fait pas très sérieux that doesn't make a very good impression.

B nm

1 ( expression grave) seriousness; dire qch avec beaucoup de sérieux to say sth very seriously; garder son sérieux to keep a straight face; perdre son sérieux to start to laugh;

2 ( caractère réfléchi) seriousness; faire qch avec sérieux to do sth carefully; elle travaille avec sérieux et application she is serious and conscientious in her work; il a fait preuve de beaucoup de sérieux dans ses études he's shown himself to be very serious about his studies;

3 ( de situation) seriousness, gravity sout; (de projet, démarche) seriousness; je mets en doute le sérieux de leur proposition I have my doubts about the seriousness of their proposal; prendre qch/qn au sérieux to take sth/sb seriously; se prendre au sérieux to take oneself seriously;

4 ( chope de bière) beer mug (1 litre).

( féminin sérieuse) [serjø, øz] adjectif

1. [grave - ton, visage] serious, solemn

[important - lecture, discussion] serious

2. [consciencieux - employé] serious, responsible ; [ - élève] serious, serious-minded, earnest ; [ - travail] conscientious

3. [digne de foi - offre] genuine ; [ - candidature, revue] serious ; [ - personne] reliable, dependable ; [ - analyse, enquête] serious, thorough, in-depth

4. [dangereux - situation, maladie] grave, serious ; [ - blessure] severe

5. [sincère] serious

[vrai]

6. (avant le nom) [important - effort] real ; [ - dégâts, difficultés, risques] serious

ils ont une sérieuse avance sur nous they are well ahead of us

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nom masculin

1. [gravité - d'une personne] seriousness ; [ - d'une situation] gravity

2. [application] seriousness, serious-mindedness

3. [fiabilité - d'une intention] seriousness, earnestness ; [ - d'une source de renseignements] reliability, dependability

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au sérieux locution adverbiale

se prendre (trop) au sérieux to take oneself (too) seriously

(Research Libraries Information Network)

   En 1980, le RLG (Research Libraries Group) débute RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network), un catalogue collectif différent du catalogue WorldCat d’OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) puisque, contrairement à WorldCat qui n’accepte qu’une notice par document, RLIN accepte plusieurs notices pour un même document. RLIN comprend 82 millions de notices en 1998. Des centaines de dépôts d’archives, bibliothèques de musées, bibliothèques universitaires, bibliothèques publiques, bibliothèques de droit, bibliothèques techniques, bibliothèques d’entreprise et bibliothèques d’art utilisent RLIN pour le catalogage, le prêt inter-bibliothèques et le contrôle des archives et des manuscrits. 365 langues y sont représentées, avec des notices translittérées pour les documents publiés dans les langues JACKPHY (japonais, arabe, chinois, coréen, persan, hébreu et yiddish) et en cyrillique. Une des spécialités de RLIN est l’histoire de l’art. Alimentée par 65 bibliothèques spécialisées, une section spécifique comprend 100.000 notices de catalogues d’expositions et 168.500 notices de documents iconographiques (photographies, diapositives, dessins, estampes ou affiches). Cette section inclut aussi les 110.000 notices de la base bibliographique Scipio, consacrée aux catalogues de ventes. En 2003, RLIN devient le RLG Union Catalog.

   Voir aussi: bibliothèque, catalogue collectif mondial, JACKPHY, RLG, RLG Union Catalog, WorldCat.

diplôme [diplom]

( = titre) diploma ; (University) ≈ degree

• avoir des diplômes to have qualifications

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The initial university qualifications in France are the « DEUG » or « DEUST » (taken after two years), and the « licence », taken after three years. The one-year « maîtrise » follows the « licence », and involves a dissertation known as a « mémoire ». Higher postgraduate study usually begins with a « DEA », a research qualification that precedes the « doctorat ». <

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diplom

nom masculin

1) École certificate, diploma

il n'a aucun diplôme — he hasn't got any qualifications

quels diplômes faut-il pour faire? — what qualifications are needed to do?

2) (d'université, de grande école) degree; ( d'autre institution) diploma

diplôme d'ingénieur — engineering degree

diplôme d'architecte — degree in architecture

3) (dans l'armée, la police) staff exam

4) ( nécessaire à l'exercice d'une activité) certificate

5) ( épreuves) exam

passer un diplôme — to take an exam

6) ( document) certificate

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diplom nm

1) (= certificat) diploma certificate

2) (= examen) examination, diploma examination

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diplôme nm

1 Scol certificate, diploma; il n'a aucun diplôme he hasn't got any qualifications; quels diplômes faut-il pour faire? what qualifications are needed to do?;

2 (d'université, de grande école) degree; ( d'autre institution) diploma; les diplômes universitaires university degrees; diplôme de licence/de maîtrise ≈ bachelor's degree/Master's (degree); il possède un diplôme d'une école de commerce he has a degree from a business school; diplôme d'enseignement teaching qualification; diplôme d'ingénieur engineering degree; diplôme d'architecte degree in architecture; diplôme d'infirmière nursing qualification GB ou degree;

3 (dans l'armée, la police) staff exam;

4 ( nécessaire à l'exercice d'une activité) certificate; diplôme de maître nageur/de secouriste lifesaver's/first aid certificate;

5 ( épreuves) exam; passer un diplôme to take an exam;

6 ( document) certificate.

[diplom] nom masculin

1. [titre] diploma, qualification

un diplôme d'ingénieur an engineering diploma

elle a des diplômes she's highly qualified

diplôme d'études approfondies → link=DEA DEA

diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées → link=DESS DESS

diplôme d'études universitaires générales → link=DEUG DEUG

diplôme universitaire de technologie → link=DUT DUT

diplôme d'études universitaires scientifiques et techniques → link=DEUST DEUST

2. [examen] exam

3. HISTOIRE diploma

ж.

1) culture f, civilisation f

2) ( культурность) culture intellectuelle

3) (умение, высокий уровень) culture f

4) с.-х. culture f

5) бакт. culture f

détail [detaj]

   a. ( = particularité) detail

• dans les (moindres) détails in (minute) detail

• entrer dans les détails to go into detail

• c'est un détail ! that's just a minor detail!

   b. [de facture, compte] breakdown

• en détail

• dans le détail in detail

• il ne fait pas de or le détail ! (inf) he doesn't make any exceptions!

   c. (Business) retail

• vendre au détail [+ marchandise, vin] to (sell) retail ; [+ articles, couverts] to sell separately

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nom masculin

1) ( petit élément) detail

2) ( analyse précise) breakdown

3) Commerce retail

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1) (éléments d'un ensemble) details pl

2) (élément pris à part) detail, (élément considéré comme négligeable) detail

3) ART detail

4) COMMERCE

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détail nm

1 ( petit élément) detail; détail fâcheux/significatif/troublant annoying/significant/disturbing detail; détail sans intérêt unimportant detail; détails techniques technical details; soigner chaque détail to pay attention to every detail; le moindre détail the slightest detail; étudier/dépeindre/imaginer dans les moindres détails to study/depict/imagine in minute detail;

2 ( analyse précise) breakdown; détail des dépenses breakdown of expenses; détail chiffré breakdown in figures; expliquer en détail/plus en détail to explain in detail/in greater detail; entrer dans le détail or les détails to go into detail; ne pas faire dans le détail not to do in detail; ils n'ont pas fait de détail, ils ont licencié tout le monde they didn't use half-measures, they laid everybody off; avoir un sens/le goût du détail to have an eye/a liking for detail; raconter qch en détail to give a detailed account of sth; analyse/étude/discussion de détail detailed analysis/study/discussion; un point de détail a minor detail; ‘un détail, n'oubliez pas votre manuel la prochaine fois!’ ‘just one thing, don't forget your textbook next time!’;

3 Comm retail; acheter/vendre (qch) au détail to buy/sell (sth) retail.

[detaj] nom masculin

1. [exposé précis] breakdown, detailed account, itemization

2. [élément - d'un récit, d'une information] detail, particular

a. [ennuyeux] I won't bore you with the detail ou details

b. [horribles] I'll spare you the (gory) details

[point sans importance] detail, minor point

3. ART detail

4. COMMERCE retail

5. [petite partie - d'un meuble, d'un édifice] detail

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au détail locution adjectivale

[vente] retail (modificateur)

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au détail locution adverbiale

vous vendez les œufs au détail? do you sell eggs separately?

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de détail locution adjectivale

1. [mineur]

2. COMMERCE retail (modificateur)

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en détail locution adverbiale

raconter une histoire en détail to tell a story in detail

1) culture f, civilisation f

2) ( культурность) culture intellectuelle

3) (умение, высокий уровень) culture f

4) с.-х. culture f

5) бакт. culture f

••

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1) gener. civilisation, culture

2) med. culture (напр. микроорганизмов)

3) archaeol. facies, faciès

SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Guinand received little formal education and followed his father's trade of joiner. He specialized in making clock cases, but after learning how to cast metals he took up the more lucrative work of making watch cases. When he was about 20 years old, in a customer's house he caught sight of an English telescope, a rarity in a Swiss mountain village. Intrigued, he obtained permission to examine it. This aroused his interest in optical matters and he began making spectacles and small telescopes.

Achromatic lenses were becoming known, their use being to remove the defect of chromatic aberration or coloured optical images, but there remained defects due to imperfections in the glass itself. Stimulated by offers of prizes by scientific bodies, including the Royal Society of London, for removing these defects, Guinand set out to remedy them. He embarked in 1784 on a long and arduous series of experiments, varying the materials and techniques for making glass. The even more lucrative trade of making bells for repeaters provided the funds for a furnace capable of holding 2 cwt (102 kg) of molten glass. By 1798 or so he had succeeded in making discs of homogeneous glass. He impressed the famous Parisian astronomer de Lalande with them and his glass became well enough known for scientists to visit him. In 1805 Fraunhofer persuaded Guinand to join his optical-instrument works at Benediktheurn, in Bavaria, to make lenses. After nine years, Guinand returned to Brenets with a pension, on condition he made no more glass and disclosed no details of his methods. After two years these conditions had become irksome and he relinquished the pension. On 19 February 1823 Guinand described his discoveries in his classic "Memoir on the making of optical glass, more particularly of glass of high refractive index for use in the production of achromatic lenses", presented to the Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève. This gives details of his experiments and investigations and discusses a suitable pot-clay stirrer and stirring mechanism for the molten glass, with temperature control, to overcome optical-glass defects such as bubbles, seeds, cords and colours. Guinand was hailed as the man in Europe who had achieved this and has thus rightly been called the founder of the era of optical glassmaking.

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